Cleopatra: Part 22 As we follow the story of Cleopatra and Mark Antony, it is worth pausing for a moment to meet the third great Roman who shaped the queen’s life. Cleopatra’s story was closely tied to three remarkable men. First came Julius Caesar. Then came Mark Antony. The last was the man history remembers […]
Cleopatra: Part 21 Did Octavian Really Read Antony’s Will to the Senate? Few moments in Roman history were as dramatic, or as controversial, as Octavian’s public revelation of Mark Antony’s will. The episode became a turning point in the growing conflict between Antony, Cleopatra, and the future Emperor Augustus. It helped pave the way for […]
Cleopatra: Part 20 A Spectacle Designed to Change the Ancient World In 34 BC, Cleopatra and Mark Antony staged one of the most extraordinary political ceremonies of the ancient world: the Donations of Alexandria. Before a vast audience gathered in Alexandria’s gymnasium, they presented a vision of a new eastern empire centred on Egypt and […]
Cleopatra: Part 19 In 36 BC, Mark Antony launched his own invasion of Parthia. It was an ambitious undertaking, but one that would end in humiliation and heavy losses. The campaign came after a turbulent period in Antony’s personal and political life. Having left Cleopatra for Greece in 40 BC, he sought to repair relations […]
Cleopatra: Part 18 Treaty of Brundisium Following the Treaty of Brundisium in 40 BC, the Roman world was divided once again: Antony received the eastern provinces, Octavian the west, and Lepidus retained Africa. The agreement restored cooperation between the triumvirs and allowed Antony to focus on a major objective in the East, the long-planned campaign […]
Cleopatra: Part 17 Few deaths in ancient history seem as suspicious, or as convenient, as the death of Fulvia, Mark Antony’s powerful wife. After the disastrous Perusine War of 41-40 B.C., Antony left Alexandria and traveled to Greece to meet Fulvia. His departure could not have come at a more significant moment. He was leaving […]
Cleopatra: Part 16 In 41-40 B.C., after their famous negotiations at Tarsus, Cleopatra and Mark Antony spent the winter together in Alexandria. During that period, they likely conceived their twins, Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Their romance may not have begun in Alexandria, however. Some historians suggest that Antony and Cleopatra had already established a […]
Cleopatra: Part 15 Cleopatra’s arrival at Tarsus is one of the most famous encounters in ancient history. In the novel, the Egyptian ruler’s arrival at Tarsus is not presented as a romantic meeting but as a calculated display of power. Rather than submitting to Mark Antony’s summons, Cleopatra reverses the power dynamic and turns the […]
Cleopatra: Part 14 Was Cleopatra in Love with Mark Antony? The popular image of Cleopatra and Mark Antony is one of history’s great love stories. The reality was probably far more practical. Their relationship appears to have been, above all else, an alliance of convenience that served both Egypt and Rome. That does not mean […]
Cleopatra: Part 13 Survival, Not Virtue Historian Adrian Goldsworthy observes that it is difficult to identify any truly ‘good’ figures in the times of the Roman Republic. This was not a struggle between heroes and villains. By modern standards, almost all the major players might be considered ruthless, ambitious and often murderous. Cleopatra and her […]
Cleopatra: Part 12 Cleopatra’s Closest Companions The novel explores Cleopatra through her relationships with the people closest to her: Charmian and Iras, Julius Caesar, and Mark Antony. Historically, Charmian and Iras are usually described as Cleopatra’s handmaidens. Yet Charmian appears to have been considerably more than a lady-in-waiting. Ancient sources suggest she occupied a position […]
Cleopatra: Part 11 Securing the Island Following his naval victory, Caesar turned his attention to Pharos Island, home to the famous Lighthouse of Alexandria. The island was crucial to controlling access to Alexandria’s harbours and was connected to the mainland by the Heptastadion, a causeway linking the city to the island. Recognising its strategic importance, […]
Cleopatra: Part 10 Pothinus’ Betrayal Revealed As the siege dragged on, Caesar uncovered a dangerous conspiracy within his own ranks. Pothinus, one of Ptolemy XIII’s chief advisers, had secretly established contact with Achillas and the Egyptian besiegers early in the conflict. Shortly after Achillas’ assassination, one of Caesar’s slaves intercepted communications linking Pothinus to the […]
Cleopatra: Part 9 Caesar Sets Alexandria Ablaze After General Achillas launched his assault on Alexandria’s Royal Quarter, fierce fighting erupted throughout the city. Severely outnumbered and with few reinforcements available, Julius Caesar resorted to desperate measures. To create a diversion, he ordered the Ptolemaic ships in the harbour burned and dispatched troops to secure the […]
Cleopatra: Part 8 Caesar’s Unexpected Role in Egypt One thing that would never have crossed Julius Caesar’s mind when he arrived in Egypt was that he would find himself acting as referee between a group of ambitious royal teenagers, all determined to claim the throne. When Ptolemy XIII discovered that his sister Cleopatra had gained […]
Cleopatra: Part 7 Roman politics was always changing. For Egypt’s Ptolemaic rulers, that volatility made life frustrating and often downright dangerous. Despite the propaganda spread by Roman writers after her death and Rome’s subsequent annexation of Egypt, Cleopatra remained a loyal ally of Rome. Her challenge was not whether to support Rome, but which Roman […]
Cleopatra: Part 6 Following the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, in 51 BC, Cleopatra VII Thea Philopator initially ruled alongside her younger brother and co-ruler, Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator. However, the arrangement quickly deteriorated, with Cleopatra fleeing for her life. Taking refuge in Syria, she began raising an army with the intention of […]
Cleopatra: Part 5 When Ptolemy XII was restored to the Egyptian throne in 55 BC, it was largely due to Roman intervention. Officially, the Roman Senate was reluctant to become involved. In practice, powerful individuals often mattered more than official institutions. Pompey, Caesar and Crassus, the men who dominated Roman politics through the informal alliance […]
Cleopatra: Part 4 The Historical Question One of the pleasures of writing about Cleopatra is that so much of her early life remains uncertain. Historians can tell us quite a lot about her father Ptolemy XII and his exile from Egypt. We know that he sought support from powerful Romans. We also know that he […]
Cleopatra: Part 3 When Ptolemy XII was driven from Alexandria in 58 BC, his eleven-year-old daughter Cleopatra suddenly disappears from the historical record. What happened to her? Most historians assume she remained in Egypt while her sister, Berenice IV, seized the throne. But there is another possibility. What if Cleopatra went into exile with her […]
Cleopatra: Part 2 Unlike many famous historical figures, we do not know the exact date of Cleopatra VII’s birth. Historians generally place it in either 70 or 69 BC, during a turbulent period in the history of Ptolemaic Egypt. She was born in Alexandria, the great city founded by Alexander the Great, and entered a […]
Cleopatra: Part 1 Born around 70/69 BC and dying in Alexandria on either 10 or 12 August 30 BC, Cleopatra VII Philopator belonged to the Ptolemaic dynasty, a royal house of Macedonian Greek origin that had ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries before her birth. Although remembered as Egypt’s most famous queen, her ancestry reveals […]